Environmental Science Current Issues

Environmental issues concerning India and The World
The environment is constantly changing and evolving. The population is growing, and with it, the demand for resources. This can often hurt the environment. It is important to be aware of the environmental issues facing India and the world so that we can take steps to mitigate their effects.

Air Pollution
In India, air pollution has become a huge problem. The United States’ coal-fired power plants produce more than 50 per cent of the world’s sulphur dioxide. This gas is a major contributor to acid rain and other forms of environmental damage. India is also home to some of the most polluted cities in the world. This includes New Delhi, which was ranked first for air pollution by WHO Global Ambient Air Quality Database (GAAQD) in 2018.

UNEP’s Actions on Air Quality report provides a review of policy actions being undertaken by governments around the world to improve air quality. The report provides an assessment of actions in key sectors that contribute to air pollution, including industrial emissions (incentives for cleaner production), transportation (vehicle emission and fuel quality standards), solid waste management (regulation of open burning of waste), household air pollution (incentives for clean energy use in residential cooking and heating) and agriculture (sustainable agricultural practices). With every breath we take, we suck in tiny particles that can damage our lungs, hearts, and brains and cause a host of other health problems. The most dangerous of these particles, which can include anything from soot, soil dust, to sulphates, are fine particles 2.5 microns or less in diameter —shortened as PM2.5.
Air pollution is a major global health crisis and causes one in nine deaths worldwide. Exposure to PM2.5 reduced the average global life expectancy by approximately one year in 2019.
The deadliest illnesses linked to PM2.5 air pollution are stroke, heart disease, lung disease, lower respiratory diseases (such as pneumonia), and cancer. High levels of fine particles also contribute to other illnesses, like diabetes, can hinder cognitive development in children and also cause mental health problems.
Even though air pollution is a global problem, it disproportionately affects those living in developing nations and particularly the most vulnerable, such as women, children, and the elderly.

Smog and soot
• These are the two most prevalent types of air pollution. Smog (sometimes referred to as ground-level ozone) occurs when emissions from combusting fossil fuels react with sunlight. Soot—a type of particulate matter—is made up of tiny particles of chemicals, soil, smoke, dust, or allergens that are carried in the air. The sources of smog and soot are similar. Both come from cars and trucks, factories, power plants, incinerators, engines, generally anything that combusts fossil fuels such as coal, gasoline, or natural gas.
• Smog can irritate the eyes and throat and also damage the lungs, especially those of children, senior citizens, and people who work or exercise outdoors. It’s even worse for people who have asthma or allergies; these extra pollutants can intensify their symptoms and trigger asthma attacks. The tiniest airborne particles in soot are especially dangerous because they can penetrate the lungs and bloodstream and worsen bronchitis, lead to heart attacks, and even hasten death.

Greenhouse gases
• While these climate pollutants don’t have the direct or immediate impacts on the human body associated with other air pollutants, like smog or hazardous chemicals, they are still harmful to our health. By trapping the earth’s heat in the atmosphere, greenhouse gases lead to warmer temperatures, which in turn lead to the hallmarks of climate change: rising sea levels, more extreme weather, heat-related deaths, and the increased transmission of infectious diseases. In 2021, carbon dioxide accounted for roughly 79 percent of the country’s total greenhouse gas emissions, and methane made up more than 11 percent.
• “Carbon dioxide comes from combusting fossil fuels, and methane comes from natural and industrial sources, including large amounts that are released during oil and gas drilling,” Walke says. “We emit far larger amounts of carbon dioxide, but methane is significantly more potent, so it’s also very destructive.”
• Another class of greenhouse gases, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), are thousands of times more powerful than carbon dioxide in their ability to trap heat. In October 2016, more than 140 countries signed the Kigali Agreement to reduce the use of these chemicals—which are found in air conditioners and refrigerators—and develop greener alternatives over time. (The United States officially signed onto the Kigali Agreement in 2022.)

What is Acid Rain?
Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with acidic components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry forms. This can include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.
Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the atmosphere and transported by wind and air currents. The SO2 and NOX react with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These then mix with water and other materials before falling to the ground.
While a small portion of the SO2 and NOX that cause acid rain is from natural sources such as volcanoes, most of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels. The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are:
• Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOX in the atmosphere come from electric power generators.
• Vehicles and heavy equipment.
• Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.
This image illustrates the pathway for acid rain in our environment:
(1) Emissions of SO2 and NOx are released into the air,
(2) the pollutants are transformed into acid particles that may be transported long distances. (3) These acid particles then fall to the earth as wet and dry deposition (dust, rain, snow, etc.) (4) may cause harmful effects on soil, forests, streams, and lakes.
Acidity and alkalinity are measured using a pH scale for which 7.0 is neutral. The lower a substance's pH (less than 7), the more acidic it is; the higher a substance's pH (greater than 7), the more alkaline it is. Normal rain has a pH of about 5.6; it is slightly acidic because carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves into it forming weak carbonic acid. Acid rain usually has a pH between 4.2 and 4.4.

Deforestation
India has had one of the highest rates of deforestation in recent years with about 11 million hectares lost since 1951. Deforestation causes climate change by making emissions from burning forests and releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere from decomposed trees
Forest fires are another source of greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to global warming as well as cause localized pollution. The number of forest fires in India has been increasing steadily over the years.
Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal and destruction of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated deforestation occurs in tropical rainforests.
About 31% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests at present. This is one-third less than the forest cover before the expansion of agriculture, with half of that loss occurring in the last century. Between 15 million to 18 million hectares of forest, an area the size of Bangladesh, are destroyed every year. On average 2,400 trees are cut down each minute.
The overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture. More than 80% of deforestation was attributed to agriculture in 2018. Forests are being converted to plantations for coffee, tea, palm oil, rice, rubber, and various other popular products. Livestock ranching is another agricultural activity that drives deforestation. Further drivers are the wood industry (logging), economic development in general (for example urbanization), mining. The effects of climate change are another cause via the increased risk of wildfires.
According to the secretariat of the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change), agriculture is the root cause of 80% of deforestation. Logging accounts for another 14% and the cutting of trees for use as wood fuel account for 5%. A pie-chart detailing the driving cause of the deforestation of tropical forests between the years 2000 and 2005 is provided below.
Slash-and-burn agriculture is one of the most destructive forms of agriculture that results in large-scale deforestation. It involves the burning of a large area of forest land and the subsequent plantation of crops in the same soil (which is now fertilized by the ashes of the burnt trees). Despite the practice being abandoned by several developed countries, it is still followed in some Southeast Asian countries.

Water Pollution
• In addition to air pollution, water pollution is also a major concern in India. Every day, a lot of untreated sewage is discharged into rivers and other water bodies. This makes the water unfit for human consumption or irrigation.
• Water pollution can be defined as the contamination of water bodies. Water pollution is caused when water bodies such as rivers, lakes, oceans, groundwater and aquifers get contaminated with industrial and agricultural effluents.
• When water gets polluted, it adversely affects all lifeforms that directly or indirectly depend on this source. The effects of water contamination can be felt for years to come.
• The Ganges River, considered sacred by Hindus, is one of the most polluted rivers in the world. The city receives about 400 million liter's of wastewater every day that is not treated. This wastewater comes from many different sources, including homes, religious places, businesses, and hospitals
• The Yamuna River, which flows through Delhi, is even more polluted with about 620 million liter's of raw sewage being dumped into it daily
• The key causative of water pollution in India are:
o Urbanization.
o Deforestation.
o Industrial effluents.
o Social and Religious Practices.
o Use of Detergents and Fertilizers.
o Agricultural run-offs- Use of insecticides and pesticides.
• 'Namami Gange Programme', is an Integrated Conservation Mission, approved as 'Flagship Programme' by the Union Government in June 2014 with budget outlay of Rs. 20,000 Crore to accomplish the twin objectives of effective abatement of pollution, conservation and rejuvenation of National River Ganga.
• Ganga Gram: Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (MoDWS) identified 1674 Gram Panchayats situated on the bank of River Ganga in 5 State (Uttarakhand,Uttar Pradesh,Bihar,Jharkhand,West Bengal). Rs. 578 Crores has been released to Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (MoDWS) for construction of toilets in 1674 Gram Panchayats of 5 Ganga Basin States. Out of the targeted 15, 27,105 units, MoDWS has completed construction of 8, 53,397 toilets. Consortium of 7 IITs has been engaged in the preparation of Ganga River basin Plan and 65 villages has been adopted by 13 IITs to develop as model villages. UNDP has been engaged as the executing agency for rural sanitation programme and to develop Jharkhand as a model State at an estimated cost of Rs. 127 Crore.
• National Mission for Clean Ganga, endeavors to deploy best available knowledge and resources across the world for Ganga rejuvenation. Clean Ganga has been a perennial attraction for many international countries that have expertise in river rejuvenation. Countries such as Australia, United Kingdom, Germany, Finland, Israel etc. have shown interest in collaborating with India for Ganga rejuvenation. Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) were signed with various Central Ministries viz.- Ministry of Human Resource Development, Ministry of Rural Development, Ministry of Railways, Ministry of Shipping, Ministry of Tourism, Ministry of Ayush, Ministry of Petroleum, Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports, Ministry of Drinking Water & Sanitation and Ministry of Agriculture for synergizing the Government schemes.

Climate Change & Global Warming
• Global warming is a gradual increase in the earth’s temperature generally due to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other pollutants.
• Since 1880, the average global temperature has risen by 1.1°C, of which the majority of warming has happened after 1975 (NASA GISS). The current international agenda as reflected in the Paris Accord is to limit the warming to 1.5°C from pre-industrial levels to secure a livable future for all. A 2°C rise will set a chain of irreversible reactions in Earth's climate. Despite the scientific community and activists pushing for long to take climate action, a lack of political will, institutional changes and industry accountability have kept us way beyond the target. At current policy rates, we are projected to reach a 2.8°C rise by 2100.
Following are the major causes of global warming:

Man-made Causes of Global Warming
Deforestation
Plants are the main source of oxygen. They take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen thereby maintaining environmental balance. Forests are being depleted for many domestic and commercial purposes. This has led to an environmental imbalance, thereby giving rise to global warming.

Use of Vehicles
The use of vehicles, even for a very short distance results in various gaseous emissions. Vehicles burn fossil fuels which emit a large amount of carbon dioxide and other toxins into the atmosphere resulting in a temperature increase.

Chlorofluorocarbon
With the excessive use of air conditioners and refrigerators, humans have been adding CFCs into the environment which affects the atmospheric ozone layer. The ozone layer protects the earth surface from the harmful ultraviolet rays emitted by the sun. The CFCs have led to ozone layer depletion making way for the ultraviolet rays, thereby increasing the temperature of the earth.

Industrial Development
With the advent of industrialization, the temperature of the earth has been increasing rapidly. The harmful emissions from the factories add to the increasing temperature of the earth.
In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change reported that the increase in the global temperature between 1880 and 2012 has been 0.9 degrees Celsius. The increase is 1.1 degrees Celsius when compared to the pre-industrial mean temperature.

Agriculture
Various farming activities produce carbon dioxide and methane gas. These add to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and increase the temperature of the earth.

Overpopulation
An increase in population means more people breathing. This leads to an increase in the level of carbon dioxide, the primary gas causing global warming, in the atmosphere.

Natural Causes of Global Warming
Volcanoes
Volcanoes are one of the largest natural contributors to global warming. The ash and smoke emitted during volcanic eruptions goes out into the atmosphere and affects the climate.

Water Vapour
Water vapour is a kind of greenhouse gas. Due to the increase in the earth’s temperature, more water gets evaporated from the water bodies and stays in the atmosphere adding to global warming.

Melting Permafrost
Permafrost is frozen soil that has environmental gases trapped in it for several years and is present below Earth’s surface. It is present in glaciers. As the permafrost melts, it releases the gases back into the atmosphere, increasing Earth’s temperature.

Forest Blazes
Forest blazes or forest fires emit a large amount of carbon-containing smoke. These gases are released into the atmosphere and increase the earth’s temperature resulting in global warming.

Net Zero:
The concept, embedded in physical climate science, refers to a state of Earth's atmosphere where the anthropogenic GHGs released into the air are balanced by the removal of an equal amount. The Net zero target on an international level was the first time set by the Paris Climate Accord (entered into force on 4 November 2016).

The Need for Net Zero:
To keep the global temperature within the limit, only a specific amount of CO2 and other GHGs can be present in the earth's atmosphere. Any increase above that budget should be countered by removal into natural or artificial sinks. Net zero is crucial to keep the temperatures around 1.5°C and forms an important reference level to keep the individual national emissions in check. It becomes pivotal as 1.5°C targets are critical to keeping severe climate change-related disasters under control (IPCC).

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
• UNFCCC was signed in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development also known as the Earth Summit, the Rido Summit or the Rio Conference.
• India is among the select few countries to have hosted the COP of all three Rio conventions on climate change (UNFCCC), biodiversity (CBD) and land (United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification).
• The UNFCCC entered into force in 1994 and has been ratified by 197 countries.
• It is the parent treaty of the 2015 Paris Agreement. It is also the parent treaty of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol.
• The UNFCCC secretariat (UN Climate Change) is the United Nations entity tasked with supporting the global response to the threat of climate change. It is located in Bonn, Germany.
• Its objective is to achieve stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous repercussions within a time frame so as to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally and enable sustainable development.

Biodiversity
Maintaining biodiversity is necessary for a healthy ecosystem. Nature provides us with clean air and water, fertile soil for growing food, and medicines that can treat diseases such as cancer or HIV/AIDS. Biodiversity helps protect us from natural disasters like floods and droughts. During rainstorms, biodiversity absorbs excess stormwater. And during dry periods, it retains moisture
The loss of biodiversity has been a pressing environmental issue in India for many years. This is because humans have destroyed habitats through activities like logging, mining and urbanisation. In addition to the high rates of deforestation in this country (about 11 million hectares have been lost since 1951), it also causes an imbalance in ecosystems where animals cannot survive and find food. Many species in India are also threatened by poaching and the illegal wildlife trade
The Bengal tiger is one of the animals that faces a high risk of extinction due to poaching and habitat destruction. There were estimated to be only about 2000 tigers left in the wild in India as of 2014. The Indian rhinoceros is another critically endangered animal, with only about 2700 remaining in the wild. Habitat loss has been a major threat to their survival, but they’re also poached for their horns which are used in traditional Chinese medicine
It’s not just animals that are at risk from environmental issues in India – humans too are being affected. Over half of India’s population – 620 million people – lives below the poverty line. These people often do not have access to clean water or electricity because they cannot afford it
The Indian government has set up national parks to protect the country’s biodiversity. These parks allow animals to roam freely without being disturbed by humans. For example, people can drive through the parks on roads near the areas. In addition, there are strict laws against poaching animals like tigers which carry heavy penalties if found guilty. However, more needs to be done because many species have been saved so far. Governments around the world have limited resources, so they need to spend wisely while also prioritising other issues such as famine relief programmes

Bharat Stage (BS) emission norms
• Bharat Stage (BS) emission norms are standards instituted by the Government of India to regulate the output of air pollutants from compression ignition engines and Spark-ignition engines equipment, including motor vehicles.
• The standards and the timeline for implementation are set by the Central Pollution Control Board under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
• The standards, based on European regulations were first introduced in 2000. Progressively stringent norms have been rolled out since then.
• The current BS-VI emission norms, which are equivalent to Euro-VI norms, were implemented on April 1, 2020. BS-VI norms regulate tailpipe emissions of air pollutants including
• particulate matter (PM),
 Sulphur dioxide (SO2),
 Nitrogen oxides (NOx),
 Carbon monoxide (CO),
 Hydrocarbons (HC),
 Methane (CH4).
• BS-VI norms have been credited with significantly reducing air pollution from vehicles in India. A study by the Central Pollution Control Board found that PM2.5 emissions from vehicles in Delhi reduced by 25-30% after the implementation of BS-VI norms. Here is a table showing the different BS emission norms and their key features.

Recent initiatives CPCB
• Launched the National Air Quality Index (NAQI): The NAQI is a real-time air quality index that provides information on the air quality in different cities across India. The NAQI is based on six pollutants: PM2.5, PM10, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide.
• Implemented Bharat Stage (BS) VI emission norms: BS-VI emission norms are the latest emission standards for vehicles in India. BS-VI norms are equivalent to Euro-VI norms and are among the most stringent emission standards in the world.
• Launched the National Green Tribunal (NGT): The NGT is a specialized tribunal that adjudicates environmental disputes. The NGT has played a significant role in enforcing environmental laws and regulations in India.
• Launched the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): The NCAP is a comprehensive program to reduce air pollution in India. The NCAP aims to reduce PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations by 20-30% by 2024.
• Launched the National Water Quality Monitoring Programme (NWQMP): The NWQMP is a comprehensive program to monitor water quality in India. The NWQMP monitors water quality at over 3,000 locations across the country.
These are just a few examples of the major recent initiatives taken by the CPCB. The CPCB is actively working to address the country's pollution challenges and protect the environment and public health.
In addition to the above, the CPCB has also taken a number of other initiatives in recent years, including:
• Developing a national framework for the management of plastic waste.
• Launching a program to promote the use of electric vehicles.
• Working with state governments to develop and implement city-specific air quality management plans.
• Raising awareness about air and water pollution among the public.
• The CPCB's initiatives are making a significant contribution to improving the environment and public health in India.

Electric vehicles
Electric vehicles (EVs) are vehicles that use one or more electric motors for propulsion. They can be powered by a variety of energy sources, including batteries, fuel cells, and solar panels. EVs have a number of advantages over traditional gasoline-powered vehicles, including:
• Reduced emissions: EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, which helps to improve air quality and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
• Lower operating costs: EVs are cheaper to operate and maintain than gasoline-powered vehicles. This is because electricity is less expensive than gasoline, and EVs have fewer moving parts.
• Improved performance: EVs have better acceleration and torque than gasoline-powered vehicles. This is because electric motors can deliver full power instantly.

EVs are becoming increasingly popular around the world. In 2022, global EV sales reached 6.6 million units, up 108% from the previous year. The growth of the EV market is being driven by a number of factors, including government incentives, declining battery costs, and improving vehicle performance.
There are a number of different types of EVs available on the market today, including:
• Battery electric vehicles (BEVs): BEVs are the most common type of EV. They are powered by a battery that is charged by plugging into an electrical outlet.
• Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs): PHEVs have a battery that can be charged by plugging into an electrical outlet, as well as a gasoline engine that can be used to generate electricity or power the vehicle directly.
• Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs): HEVs have a battery and a gasoline engine, but the battery cannot be plugged into an electrical outlet. The battery is charged by the gasoline engine and by regenerative braking.
• Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs): FCEVs are powered by hydrogen fuel cells. Hydrogen fuel cells combine hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, which powers the electric motor.
EVs are a promising technology for reducing air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. The EV market is growing rapidly, and there is a wide range of EVs available to choose from.
The Indian government has implemented a number of policies to promote the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) in the country. These policies include:
• Financial incentives: The government provides financial incentives to consumers and businesses who purchase EVs. For example, the FAME India scheme provides subsidies for the purchase of electric two-wheelers, three-wheelers, and four-wheelers.
• Charging infrastructure: The government is investing in the development of charging infrastructure for EVs. The government has set a target to install 5 million public charging points in India by 2025.
• Public procurement: The government has mandated that all government vehicles be electric by 2030. The government is also encouraging public sector undertakings to adopt EVs.
• Research and development: The government is investing in research and development of EV technologies. The government has also set up a National Mission on Electric Mobility to coordinate the efforts of different stakeholders in the EV sector.
The Indian government's EV policies have been effective in promoting the adoption of EVs in the country. EV sales in India grew by 168% in 2022 compared to the previous year. The growth of the EV market is expected to continue in the coming years.
In addition to the national EV policies, a number of state governments in India have also implemented their own EV policies. For example, the state of Maharashtra has implemented a policy that provides subsidies for the purchase of EVs and mandates that all new taxis and buses in the state be electric.
The Indian government's EV policies are expected to play a major role in reducing air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions in the country. The EV market in India is expected to grow rapidly in the coming years, and India is poised to become a major player in the global EV market.
The central government of India has a number of programs in place to promote the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) in the country. These programs include:
• Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles in India (FAME India): The FAME India scheme provides subsidies to consumers and businesses who purchase EVs. The scheme also provides incentives for the development and manufacturing of EVs in India.
• National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP): The NEMMP was launched in 2013 to promote the adoption of EVs in India. The NEMMP provides a number of incentives to consumers and businesses who adopt EVs, including subsidies, tax breaks, and priority access to parking and other facilities.
• National Programme on Advanced Chemistry Cell (ACC) Battery Storage: The National Programme on ACC Battery Storage was launched in 2021 to promote the development and manufacturing of advanced chemistry cell (ACC) batteries in India. ACC batteries are a type of lithium-ion battery that has a higher energy density and longer lifespan than traditional lithium-ion batteries.
• Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Scheme: The Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Scheme was launched in 2022 to promote the development of charging infrastructure for EVs in India. The scheme provides financial incentives to individuals and businesses who install charging infrastructure.

These programs are helping to promote the adoption of EVs in India. EV sales in India have grown rapidly in recent years, and the country is expected to become a major player in the global EV market in the coming years.

Rio Earth Summit

• The Rio Earth Summit, also known as the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), was a major United Nations conference held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 3 to 14 June 1992. It was the largest environmental conference ever held, with over 100 world leaders and 25,000 representatives of governments, non-governmental organizations, and the media in attendance.

• The Rio Earth Summit was a watershed moment in the global environmental movement. It was the first time that world leaders had come together to address the interconnected challenges of environment and development.

The summit produced a number of important outcomes, including:

• The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, which set out a new set of principles for sustainable development.
• Agenda 21, a comprehensive plan of action for sustainable development in the 21st century.
• The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), an international treaty that aims to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to avoid dangerous interference with the climate system.
• The Convention on Biological Diversity, an international treaty that aims to conserve biological diversity, promote the sustainable use of its components, and ensure the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources.

The Rio Earth Summit was a major step forward in the global effort to protect the environment and promote sustainable development. It helped to raise awareness of environmental issues, galvanize public support for action, and lay the foundation for international cooperation.

Agenda 21 is a comprehensive plan of action for sustainable development in the 21st century. It was adopted by 178 governments at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the Rio Earth Summit.

Agenda 21
Agenda 21 is a non-binding document, but it has been influential in shaping environmental policy and practice around the world. It addresses a wide range of environmental issues, including:
• Climate change
• Air pollution
• Water pollution
• Land degradation
• Biodiversity loss
• Deforestation
• Toxic waste
• Human settlements
• Agriculture
• Energy
• Transportation
• Industry
• Consumption and production
• International cooperation
Agenda 21 emphasizes the need for sustainable development, which is defined as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. This requires balancing economic development with environmental protection and social equity.

Kyoto Protocol
• The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extended the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, based on the scientific consensus that global warming is occurring and that human-made CO₂ emissions are driving it.
• The Kyoto Protocol was adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, and entered into force on 16 February 2005. There are currently 192 parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
• The Kyoto Protocol sets legally binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European Community for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
• The Protocol also established a number of mechanisms to help countries meet their targets, including emissions trading, joint implementation, and the Clean Development Mechanism.
• The Kyoto Protocol was a major step forward in the global effort to combat climate change. It was the first international treaty to set legally binding targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The Protocol also helped to raise awareness of climate change and promote international cooperation on this issue.
• However, the Kyoto Protocol has also been criticized for its shortcomings. One of the main criticisms is that the Protocol does not require developing countries to reduce their emissions. This is a major problem because developing countries are now the largest emitters of greenhouse gases.
• The Kyoto Protocol expired at the end of 2012. However, the Paris Agreement, which was adopted in 2015, has largely superseded the Kyoto Protocol. The Paris Agreement is a new international treaty on climate change that aims to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels.

Paris Agreement
• The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change.
• It was adopted by 196 Parties at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris, France, on 12 December 2015. It entered into force on 4 November 2016.
• The Paris Agreement's overarching goal is to hold “the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels” and pursue efforts “to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.” Additionally, the agreement aims to increase the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of climate change, and at making finance flows consistent with a low GHG emissions and climate-resilient pathway.
• The Paris Agreement is a significant step forward in the global effort to combat climate change.
• It is the first international treaty to set a long-term goal of limiting global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius, and to pursue efforts to limit warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
The Agreement also includes a number of important provisions, such as:
 All countries are required to submit nationally determined contributions (NDCs) that outline their plans for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
 Developed countries are required to provide financial assistance to developing countries to help them mitigate climate change and adapt to its impacts.
 There is a global stocktake process every five years to assess progress towards the Agreement's goals and to update NDCs.

Conference of the Parties (COP)
• The Conference of the Parties (COP) is the supreme decision-making body of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The COP meets annually to assess the progress made in achieving the objectives of the UNFCCC and to adopt new decisions and agreements.
• The COP is attended by representatives of all 197 Parties to the UNFCCC. These representatives include government officials, scientists, academics, and members of non-governmental organizations (NGOs).
• The COP is divided into two main parts: the high-level segment and the technical segment. The high-level segment is attended by government ministers and other senior officials. The technical segment is attended by experts from governments, NGOs, and other organizations.
• The COP is a very important forum for international cooperation on climate change. It is where countries come together to negotiate new agreements and to set ambitious goals for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
• The COP has been responsible for a number of important achievements in the fight against climate change. For example, the COP adopted the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 and the Paris Agreement in 2015. These agreements have helped to raise awareness of climate change and to promote international cooperation on this issue.
• The COP is also an important forum for civil society engagement. NGOs play a vital role in the COP process by advocating for ambitious climate action and by holding governments accountable for their commitments.
• The next COP, COP28, will be held in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, from 30 November to 12 December 2023. COP28 will be a critical opportunity for countries to review their progress towards the goals of the Paris Agreement and to set new targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
COP26, or the 26th United Nations Climate Change Conference, was held in Glasgow, Scotland, from 31 October to 12 November 2021. It was the most important climate change conference since the adoption of the Paris Agreement in 2015.

Net zero emissions
• Net zero emissions means achieving a balance between the amount of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions produced and the amount that is removed from the atmosphere.
• This can be achieved by reducing emissions from human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, and by removing GHGs from the atmosphere through natural or technological means.
• Net zero emissions is important because it is the only way to avoid the worst impacts of climate change. Climate change is already having a significant impact on the planet, and these impacts are only going to get worse if we do not take action.
• There are a number of ways to achieve net zero emissions. Some of the most important include:
• Reducing our reliance on fossil fuels and switching to renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power.
• Improving energy efficiency in our homes, businesses, and transportation systems.
• Investing in new technologies, such as electric vehicles and carbon capture and storage.
• Protecting and restoring forests and other natural ecosystems that absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Global Initiatives on Sustainable Development
• The Stockholm Conference,1972: It was the first step towards putting environmental concerns on the global agenda.
• It resulted in the Stockholm Declaration which contained principles and an Action Plan containing recommendations for environmental policy.
• UNEP was set up in 1972 to serve as a catalyst in developing and coordinating an environmental focus in the programmes of other organizations.
• The Earth Summit, 1992: This was a direct consequence of the Brundtland Commission’s Report. It was held in Rio de Janeiro. The results of the Conference were the following documents:
• The Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
• The Convention on Biological Diversity
• The Statement on Forest Principles
• The Rio Declaration
• Agenda 21
• Kyoto Protocol,1997
• Rio +10, 2002: A 10-year assessment of the Rio outcomes (Rio +10) took the shape of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) held in Johannesburg.
• Ramsar Convention, 1971
• The World Heritage Convention, 1972: It identifies and conserves the world’s cultural and natural heritage. It draws up a list of ‘heritage sites’, which are cultural, natural or mixed areas of ‘outstanding universal value’ and therefore need to be preserved for all humanity.
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), 1973
• Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), 1979
• Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 1985
• Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987
• Basel Convention, 1989
• Convention on Biological Diversity,1992
• United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification,1994
• Rotterdam Convention,1998
• Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants,2001
• Global Tiger Forum,1993
• International Whaling Commission,1946
• Minamata Convention,2013
• Climate change mitigation strategies: Carbon sequestration, Carbon sink, Carbon Credit, Carbon trading, Carbon offsetting, Carbon Tax, Geo-engineering.
• United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
• UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
• Climate Finance Architecture: Green Climate Fund (GCF), Adaptation Fund (AF) and Global Environment Facility (GEF)
• Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) and REDD+
• Paris Agreement 2015
• The Clean Development Mechanism is a way to reduce greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions through efficient and sound technologies.
• Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture (GACSA)
• Partnership for Action on Green Economy (PAGE)

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
• The United Nations approved the Sustainable Development Goals in India (SDGs), also known as the Global Goals, in 2015 as a global action call to eradicate poverty, safeguard the environment, and guarantee that by 2030, everyone would live in peace and prosperity.
• All the 17 SDGs are interconnected, that recognizes the actions in one area have an impact on outcomes in others and that development must strike a balance between social, economic, and environmental sustainability.
• The Sustainable Development Goals in India (SDGs) aim to eradicate poverty, quality education, clean water and sanitation, hunger, AIDS, and discrimination against women and girls, health.
• To bring sustainable development in the mainstream United Nations (UN) launched the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and SDGs.
• This universal, integrated and transformative agenda aims to spur actions that will end poverty and build a more sustainable world over the next 15 years.
• There are 17 goals and 169 targets specific targets to be achieved by 2030. Reaching the goals requires action on all fronts – governments, businesses, civil society and people everywhere all have a role to play.
• SDGs are not legally binding.

The sustainable goal in India
• India played a key role in the development of the United Nations Sustainable Development Agenda 2030, and the Sustainable Development Goals in India mirror much of India’s National Development Agenda (SDGs). The world’s progress towards achieving the SDGs is primarily dependent on India’s success. However, the SDGs may be difficult to absorb and understand, with 17 goals, 169 targets, and 306 national indicators, and defining and quantifying progress may be tough.
• While governments around the globe debate how to implement and monitor progress toward the Goals, the NITI Aayog has taken the initiative by releasing the SDG India Index – Baseline Report 2018, which demonstrates how the SDGs will be measured in India. The NITI Aayog published the Baseline Report of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) India Index, which details the progress achieved by India’s states and union territories in achieving the 2030 SDG objectives.
• The SDG India Index was created by NITI Aayog and covers 13 of the 17 SDGs (leaving out Goals 12, 13, 14, and 17). The Index measures the success of all States and Union Territories (UTs) on a set of 62 National Indicators, which track the outcomes of the Government of India’s actions and programs. The SDG India Index aims to present a comprehensive picture of the country’s social, economic, and environmental situation, as well as those of its States and UTs.
• The SDG India Index is a broad metric that governments, corporations, civil society, and the general public can all understand and apply. It was made to give an overall evaluation of all Indian states and union territories, and to assist leaders and changemakers in evaluating their performance on social, economic, and environmental aspects. Its goal is to track India’s and its states’ progress forward towards 2030 SDGs.

India in SDG
India’s Preparedness Worsened:
India is not placed well to achieve the United Nations-mandated Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) and its preparedness has worsened over the years in comparison with other countries.
Major Challenges:
• The country continues to face major challenges in achieving 11 of the 17 SDGs, which has pushed down its global ranking on SDG preparedness.
• Ensuring decent work (SDG 8) has become more challenging.
• According to the report, India is on track to achieving SDG 13 on climate action.
• However, The State of India’s Environment, 2022 flagged that the country was facing major challenges in this area.
• India’s performance on climate action — (SDG) 13 — has slipped from 2019-2020.
• This decline in India’s overall performance is primarily due to eight states — Bihar, Telangana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Jharkhand — whose scores have dipped under SDG 13 in the two years.
Progress Made:
• The progress in around 10 of these goals is similar to those in 2021.
• These include SDG 2 on ending hunger, SDG 3 on good health and well-being and SDG 6 on clean water and sanitation.
Sustainability Indices
Sustainable Development Index (SDI), 2019
• It is released by the Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN).
• The SDI seeks to help countries identify gaps that must be closed in order to achieve SDGs by 2030 and to identify priorities for early action.
• India ranked 115 out of 162 countries.

Global Sustainable Development Report (GSDR) 2022
• It is a global assessment of countries' progress towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals.
• India was ranked 121 out of the 163 countries in 2022. It was ranked 117 in 2020 and 120 in 2021.
• Earlier, in February 2022, the Prime Minister addressed the “The Energy and Resources Institute’s (TERI) World Sustainable Development Summit”.
• It is published by a group of independent experts at the Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN).
 SDSN was launched in 2012 to mobilize global scientific and technological expertise to promote practical problem solving for sustainable development and implement the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
 Following their adoption, SDSN is now committed to supporting the implementation of the SDGs at national and international levels.
• It is the first GSDR prepared by the United Nations. It is entitled “The Future is Now: Science for Achieving Sustainable Development”.
• It evaluated progress on the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda. The overall score measures the total progress towards achieving all 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)
• The report finds that the current development model is not sustainable, and the progress made is in danger of being reversed through worsening social inequalities and potentially irreversible declines in the natural environment that sustains us.
• The 2022 SDG Index is topped by Finland, followed by three Nordic countries –Denmark, Sweden and Norway.
• The amount of modern renewable energy in the total global energy supply has increased by an average of approx. 5% annually over the past decade. Meanwhile, since 2009 the price of renewable electricity (solar and wind) has dropped for five years in a row.

Environment Performance Index (EPI)
• The Environment Performance Index (EPI) is an international ranking system that measures environmental health and sustainability of countries.
• The EPI, a biennial index, was started in 2002 as Environmental Sustainability Index by the World Economic Forum in collaboration with the Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy and the Columbia University Center for International Earth Science Information Network.
• The 2022 EPI leverages 40 performance indicators grouped into 11 issue categories.
• Denmark tops the 2022 rankings — an achievement rooted in strong performance across nearly all issues tracked by the EPI, with notable leadership in efforts to promote a clean energy future and sustainable agriculture.
• With a paltry score of 18.9, India’s 180th ranking comes after Pakistan, Bangladesh, Vietnam and Myanmar.

National Action Plan on Climate Change
• The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) was launched in 2008 by the Prime Minister's Council on Climate Change.
• It aims at creating awareness among the representatives of the public, different agencies of the government, scientists, industry and the communities on the threat posed by climate change and the steps to counter it.
• There are 8 national missions forming the core of the NAPCC which represent multi-pronged, long term and integrated strategies for achieving key goals in climate change. These are-
1. National Solar Mission
2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
4. National Water Mission
5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem
6. National Mission for A Green India
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change

The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission
• Governed by Ministry of New and Renewable Energy.
• It was launched in 2010 with the primary aim of achieving grid parity by 2022 and with coal-based thermal power by 2030.
• Aims to increase the share of solar energy in India's energy mix.
• It takes the measures of increasing R&D efforts, promoting decentralized distribution of energy by creating cheaper and more convenient solar power systems.
• Emphasis on manufacturing solar panels at the local level and to tie up local research with international efforts.
• Seeks to reduce the absolute cost of solar energy to bring it down and make it affordable.
• The ultimate objective is to develop a solar industry in India, capable of delivering solar energy competitively again the fossil fuel options.

National Mission for Green India
• Governed by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
• It has the mandate of reviving degraded forest land with a focus on increasing forest cover & density and conserving biodiversity.
• Works towards reducing fragmentation of forests, enhancing private public partnerships for plantations, improving schemes based on joint forestry management etc.
• Makes plans to tackle the challenges posed by climate change.
• Enhancing carbon sinks in sustainably managed forests.
• Enhancing the resilience of vulnerable species and ecosystems to adapt to climate change.
• Enabling forest dependent communities to adapt to climate variability.
• Double the area to be taken up for afforestation.
• Increase greenhouse gas removals by Indian forests.
• Enhance resilience of forests and ecosystems falling under the mission.

National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
• Governed by the Ministry of Agriculture.
• It works towards devising strategies to make Indian agriculture less susceptible to climate change.
• It would identify and develop new crop varieties, use traditional and modern agricultural techniques.
• This mission sees dry land agriculture, risk management, access to information and use of biotechnology as areas of intervention.
• Strengthening agricultural insurance, develop a system based on Geographic Information System (GIS) and remote sensing to map soil resource and land use.
• Providing information and collation of off-season crops and preparation of state-level agro-climatic atlases.
• Strategies to evolve low input agriculture with enhanced water and nitrogen efficient crops.
• Nutritional strategies to manage heat stress in dairy animals.
• Using of micro irrigation systems.
• Promotion of agricultural techniques like minimum tillage, organic farming and rain water conservation.
• Capacity building of farmers and other stakeholders.
• Production of bio-fertilizer, compost along with subsidies for chemical fertilizers.
• Strengthening of National Agricultural Insurance Scheme.

National Environment Policy, 2006
The National Environmental Policy, 2006, was released in August by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) to establish a set of regulations for environmental protection, Environmentalists welcomed it wholeheartedly because it is the dire need of the hour to have such regulations to prevent environmental degradation.
Below are the objectives of the National Environmental Policy, 2006:
• To protect and conserve ecological systems and natural resources
• To confirm equitable access to environmental resources and quality for all sections of society
• To ensure the rational use of environmental resources to encounter the needs and aspirations of the present and future generations
• To incorporate environmental concerns into policies, plans, programmes, and projects for economic and social development.
• To ensure efficient use of environmental resources in the sense of reduction in their use per unit of economic output, to minimize unfavorable environmental impacts.
• To apply the principles of good governance in the management and regulation of the use of environmental resources
The National Environment Policy, 2006 is an umbrella document that has covered the provisions that were separately governed by different acts earlier like National Forest Policy, 1988, National Agriculture Policy, 2000, National Population Policy, 2000 and the National Water Policy, 2002 etc. this act has made the environmental provisions more comprehensive and clearer. The points showing the relevance of the Policy are
• Stimulates partnership between stakeholders: The policy also seeks to stimulate partnerships of different stakeholders, i.e. public agencies, local communities, academic and scientific institutions, the investment community, and international development partners, in harnessing their respective resources and strengths for environmental management.
• Concerns on Freshwater Resources: While dealing with freshwater resources, the NEP expresses alarm over the wasteful and inefficient use of surface as well as groundwater and points to a slew of actions that need to be taken for conservation. The policy also refers to the levy of proper user charges to reflect water
• Biodiversity Conservation: Biodiversity conservation has received adequate attention in the NEP. An important object of the Biological Diversity Act, of 2002 is to check piracy of biomaterial and traditional knowledge and to enforce intellectual property rights (IPRS) over them. The Policy reiterates the letter and spirit of the Act.
• Enhancing Forest Cover: The MOEF is trying to find out ways and means to achieve the target of increasing the forest cover to 33 per cent by 2012. This task has been set by the Planning Commission under the Tenth Plan and approved by the National Development Council. The involvement of people-particularly at the grassroots level-and agencies outside the government will be crucial.
• Forest and Wildlife Conservation: Forest and wildlife conservation have been the forte of the MoEF. The NEP breaks new ground in pleading for “legal recognition of the traditional rights of forest-dwelling tribes” to “remedy a serious historical injustice”.
• Participation in coastal and marine areas: The Government earmarks encouraging stakeholder participation in solving problems related to multi-user conflicts in coastal areas in keeping with effectively integrated coastal zone management principles and philosophies.
• Information on air pollution: The Government developed a registration programme for all listed activities that emit specific air pollutants to assess their contribution to air pollution, which will lead to the development of an air emissions inventory in Trinidad and Tobago.
• Participation in wetlands: The Government using national environment policy will promote public awareness and understanding of the wetland resources of Trinidad and Tobago and actively encourage the participation of landowners, nongovernmental organisations and institutions in wetland conservation